Table 1 Parameter settings used in this analysis

Equation (1)

m = 12.86

Kagawa et al. (2011)

Equation (1)

η = 3.07

Kagawa et al. (2011)

Equation (16)

Vintage (s)

d (s)

e (s)

f _g (s)

1993

9989 (km)

12.3 (km/l)

2.387 (t CO₂-eq./car)

Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, Japan (Japan 2015)

1994

9890 (km)

12.3 (km/l)

2.363 (t CO₂-eq./car)

1995

9948 (km)

12.2 (km/l)

2.397 (t CO₂-eq./car)

1996

9916 (km)

12.3 (km/l)

2.370 (t CO₂-eq./car)

1997

9902 (km)

12.1 (km/l)

2.406 (t CO₂-eq./car)

1998

9835 (km)

12.4 (km/l)

2.331 (t CO₂-eq./car)

1999

10,037 (km)

12.9 (km/l)

2.287 (t CO₂-eq./car)

2000

9956 (km)

13.2 (km/l)

2.217 (t CO₂-eq./car)

2001

10,176 (km)

13.5 (km/l)

2.216 (t CO₂-eq./car)

2002

10,057 (km)

14.0 (km/l)

2.111 (t CO₂-eq./car)

2003

9915 (km)

14.6 (km/l)

1.996 (t CO₂-eq./car)

2004

9675 (km)

14.7 (km/l)

1.934 (t CO₂-eq./car)

2005

9411 (km)

15.0 (km/l)

1.844 (t CO₂-eq./car)

2006

9240 (km)

15.1 (km/l)

1.798 (t CO₂-eq./car)

2007

9253 (km)

15.5 (km/l)

1.755 (t CO₂-eq./car)

2008

9026 (km)

15.7 (km/l)

1.690 (t CO₂-eq./car)

2009

9127 (km)

16.5 (km/l)

1.626 (t CO₂-eq./car)

2010

8191 (km)

17.8 (km/l)

1.352 (t CO₂-eq./car)

2011

8403 (km)

18.3 (km/l)

1.349 (t CO₂-eq./car)

2012

8805 (km)

19.5 (km/l)

1.327 (t CO₂-eq./car)

2013

8953 (km)

21.1 (km/l)

1.247 (t CO₂-eq./car)

2014

9240 (km)

21.1 (km/l)

1.287 (t CO₂-eq./car)

Equation (17)

r _g = 0.00231 (t CO₂-eq./l)

National Institute for Environmental Studies, Japan (2010)

Equation (18)

r _c = 0.00063 (t CO₂-eq./l)

National Institute for Environmental Studies, Japan (2010)

Equation (20)

f _m = 6.426 (t CO₂-eq./car)

National Institute for Environmental Studies, Japan (2010)

Equation (20)

f _w = 0.057 (t CO₂-eq./car)

National Institute for Environmental Studies, Japan (2010)