Table 10 Estimation results with the growth of Internet users

Real GDP growth rate per capita (t − 1)

− 0.003 (0.052)

− 0.002 (0.030)

0.048* (0.029)

− 0.104 (0.084)

0.030 (0.051)

− 0.072 (0.045)

− 0.011 (0.029)

0.089 (0.060)

Log of real GDP per capita (t − 1)

− 0.227 (0.233)

− 2.208*** (0.660)

− 2.002*** (0.574)

− 2.395** (1.068)

0.173** (0.070)

0.182 (0.114)

0.172 (0.120)

0.168 (0.573)

Log of AI patents per million people

0.102 (0.065)

0.277*** (0.083)

0.252** (0.104)

0.769** (0.346)

–

–

–

–

Log of total patents per million people

–

–

–

–

− 0.408** (0.163)

− 3.309*** (0.747)

− 2.996*** (0.536)

− 1.395 (1.669)

Population growth rate

− 0.589*** (0.104)

− 0.599*** (0.126)

− 0.619*** (0.104)

− 0.468 (0.355)

− 0.303** (0.142)

− 0.241 (0.225)

− 0.256** (0.116)

− 0.233 (0.945)

Gross capital formation growth rate (per capita)

0.134*** (0.046)

0.124** (0.048)

0.128*** (0.013)

0.056 (0.059)

0.121*** (0.032)

0.096*** (0.031)

0.099*** (0.013)

0.237** (0.114)

Government expenditure growth rate (per capita)

0.250*** (0.050)

0.229*** (0.047)

0.224*** (0.031)

0.455** (0.203)

0.190*** (0.035)

0.138*** (0.034)

0.138*** (0.022)

0.062 (0.158)

Trade openness (5-year average)

0.003** (0.002)

0.009* (0.005)

0.009* (0.005)

0.022** (0.009)

0.003*** (0.001)

0.012** (0.006)

0.012*** (0.004)

0.017 (0.012)

Human capital index growth rate

− 0.040 (0.122)

− 0.073 (0.152)

− 0.061 (0.147)

− 0.173 (0.707)

0.055 (0.139)

− 0.059 (0.210)

− 0.043 (0.194)

0.208 (0.624)

Inflation (5-year average)

0.055 (0.035)

0.048 (0.034)

0.042* (0.022)

0.025 (0.054)

0.061** (0.027)

0.066** (0.028)

0.059** (0.024)

− 0.062 (0.195)

Internet users growth rate (5-year average)

0.006 (0.006)

0.001 (0.005)

0.000 (0.007)

0.016 (0.027)

0.008 (0.006)

0.008 (0.006)

0.007 (0.005)

− 0.014 (0.035)

Advanced economy (dummy)

− 0.287 (0.327)

0.690 (0.570)

0.541 (0.646)

2.825** (1.113)

0.379 (0.713)

3.995 (2.517)

3.555* (2.054)

4.247 (7.260)

Advanced × Log of AI patents per million people

− 0.054 (0.073)

− 0.270* (0.156)

− 0.233* (0.127)

− 1.043*** (0.345)

–

–

–

–

Advanced × Log of total patents per million people

–

–

–

–

− 0.084 (0.079)

− 0.516* (0.294)

− 0.468** (0.238)

− 0.566 (0.908)

Constant

3.095* (1.806)

20.597*** (5.951)

–

20.330** (9.692)

3.570*** (1.136)

28.720*** (6.496)

–

11.410 (14.600)

Time dummies

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Number of instruments

–

–

–

55

–

–

–

27

Sargan-Hansen test (p-value)

–

–

–

0.405

–

–

–

0.149

AR(1) (p-value)

–

–

–

0.003

–

–

–

0.002

AR(2) (p-value)

–

–

–

0.741

–

–

–

0.659

N

463

463

463

463

676

676

676

676

n

119

119

119

119

143

143

143

143